Printable Metric Conversion Quiz

Do you feel confident about your ability to make metric to metric unit conversions? Heres a quick little quiz you can take to test your knowledge. You can take the quiz online or print it out. You may wish to review metric conversions before taking this quiz. An online version of this quiz is available if you prefer to be scored as you take the quiz. TIP:To view this exercise without ads, click on print this page. There are ___ in 2000 mm?(a) 200 m(b) 2 m(c) 0.002 m(d) 0.02 mThere are ____ in 0.05 ml?(a) 0.00005 liters(b) 5 liters(c) 50 liters(d) 0.0005 liters30 mg is the same mass as:(a) 300 decigrams(b) 0.3 grams(c) 0.0003 kg(d) 0.03 gThere are ____ in 0.101 mm?(a) 1.01 cm(b) 0.0101 cm(c) 0.00101 cm(d) 10.10 cm20 m/s is the same as:(a) 0.02 km/s(b) 2000 mm/s(c) 200 cm/s(d) 0.002 mm/s30 microliters is the same as:(a) 30000000 liters(b) 30000 deciliters(c) 0.000003 liters(d) 0.03 milliliters20 grams is the same as:(a) 2000 mg(b) 20000 mg(c) 200000 mg(d) 200 mg15 km is:(a) 0.015 m(b) 1.5 m(c) 150 m(d) 15000 m30.4 cm is:(a) 0.304 mm(b) 3.04 mm(c) 304 mm(d) 3040 mmThere are ____ in 12.0 ml?(a) 0.12 l(b) 0.012 1(c) 120 l(d) 12000 l Answers:1 b, 2 a, 3 d, 4 b, 5 a, 6 d, 7 b, 8 d, 9 c, 10 b

VoIP Security Service - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 20 Words: 5948 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Chapter 4 VoIP Security Issues Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "VoIP Security Service" essay for you Create order 4.1 Denial-of-Service (DoS) in VoIP Purpose: The purpose of VoIP DoS attack is to exhaust network resources and interrupt VoIP operations through a flood of messages or by corrupting or degrading the quality of messages, thus preventing subscribers from effectively using the service. Situation: We must consider different scenario when studying DoS attacks: In a typical situation of establishing a VoIP connection for voice conversation where end systems or/and gateway are targets. At first place subscribers try to establish a voice call conversation over a VoIP channel. VoIP services should be available to subscribers when requested. In order to manage the Media gateways deployed across the communications, some VoIP systems use control protocols (e.g. MGCP and Megaco/H.248) and security mechanism. VoIP secure gateways (VoIP-SGW) are developed in advance to make IP telephony protocols friendly for common firewall configuration. In order to meet the unflawed communication level, a VoIP system must be having enough capability (i.e. routing, bandwidth, and QoS) that provide the VoIP system a high level proficiency of communication across the infrastructure. A secure VoIP system implements an intrusion detection system (IDS), firewall on the phone itself to check the media packet flow, or perform authentication. But at least a minimum set of defenses that filter unwelcome packets, for example a firewall, must be deployed. Problem: IP telephony subscribers need to be blocked from using VoIP services. The attack can be carried out taking advantage of the following vulnerabilities: VoIP security is in an initial phase at the moment, there is lack of expertise and security standards. Users might unintentionally expose the system. While there exist some basic countermeasures such as IDS and firewalls, administrator may not configure them appropriately Older firewalls cannot work interactively with VoIP and may leave open many more ports than VoIP actually uses for a transmission, leaving your machine vulnerable to hackers. Unit now VoIP has been developed and deployed focusing on functionality with less thought for security [SAV01]. That means that not vary advanced defenses are in place. For example, strong authentication is not common in VoIP. VoIP is vulnerable to DoS attacks which have not previously been a security issue with the circuit-switched telephony systems because of its analog nature. With the rush to implement new VoIP systems, features and standards, implementation flaws are common. IP PBXs include many layers of software that may contain vulnerabilities. Programming mistakes, such as not properly checking the size of the parameters of protocol request, when exploited, can result in the following issues. [VVS01] Remote access: An attacker obtaining remote (often administrator level) access. Malformed request DoS: A carefully crafted protocol request (a packet) exploiting a vulnerability which results in a partial or complete loss of function. Load-based DoS: A flood of legitimate requests overwhelming a system. As with any network-base service, enterprise VoIP must communicate with other components on a LAN and possibly over an untrusted network such as the internet, where packets are easy to intercept. Because RTP carries media, which must be delivered in real-time to be usable for an acceptable conversation, VoIP is vulnerable to DoS attacks that impact the quality delivery of audio such as those that affect jitter and delay. VoIP tools can offer very good cover traffic for DoS attacks because VoIP runs continuous media over IP packets [CRN01] Solution: Two basic standards are used for VoIP systems: H.323 and SIP. We consider here an attack in an H.232 environment. The SIP attack can be considered a variant of this pattern or a separate pattern. Likewise, specific Dos attacks against gateways will be analyzed from the supporting Megaco/H.248 protocol viewpoint. Figure 5.1 shows the class diagram of the structure of an H.323 system. The Layer 2 Switch provides connectivity between H.323 components. The Gateway takes a voice call from a circuit-switched Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) and places it on the IP network. The PSTN uses PBX switches and Analog Phones. The internet (IP network) contains Routers and Firewalls to filter traffic to the Terminal Devices. The gateway also queries the Gatekeeper via the Internet with caller/callee numbers and the gatekeeper translates them into routing numbers based upon service logic. The IP-PBX server acts like a call-processing manager providing call setup and routing the calls throughout the network to other voice devices. Softphones are applications installed in Terminal Devices (e.g. PCs or wireless devices). One method to launch a DoS attack is to flood a server with repeated requests for legal service in an attempt to overload it. This may cause severe degradation or complete unavailability of the voice service. A flooding attack can also be launched against IP phones and Gateways (e.g. a flood of register or invite events). With this form of DoS attacks, the target system is so busy processing packets from the attack that it will be unable to process legitimate packets, which will either be ignored or processed so slowly that the VoIP service is unusable. Attackers can also use the TCP SYN Flood attack (also known as resource starvation attack) to obtain similar results. This attack floods the port with synchronization packets, normally used to start a connection. In a Distributed DoS, multiple systems are used to generate a massive flood of packets. To launch a massive DDoS attack the hacker previously installs malicious software on compromised terminal devices (infected with a Trojan horse) that can be triggered at a later time (a.k.a. zombies) to send fake traffic to targeted VoIP components. Targeted DoS attacks are also possible where the attacker disrupts specific connections. The class diagram of Figure 5.2 shows the structure for a DDoS attack in an H.323 architecture where any VoIP component can be a target for Dos. Classes Attack Control Mechanism and Zombie describe the software introduced by the attacker. Note that the Zombie is just a terminal device in a different role. The sequence diagram of Figure 5.3 shows the sequence of steps necessary to perform an instance of a DoS attack of the first type mentioned above. An attacker (internal or remote), with knowledge of a valid user name on a VoIP system, could generate enough call requests to over-whelm the IP-PBX server. An attacker may disrupt a subscribers call attempt by sending specially crafted messages to his/her ISP server or IP PBX component, causing it to over allocate resources such that the caller receives a service not available (busy tone) message. This is an example of a targeted attack. Similarly, out-of-sequence voice packets (such as receiving media packets before a session is accepted) or a very large phone number could open the way to Application Layer attacks (a.k.a. Attacks against Network Services). Buffer Overflow attacks might paralyze a VoIP number using repeated calling. For example, an attacker intermittently sends garbage (I.e. both the header and the payload are filled with random bytes corrupting the Callees jitter buffer voice packets) to the callees phone in between those of the callers voice packets. Therefore the Callees phone is so busy trying to process the increased packet flow that the jitter (delay variation) causes any conversation to be incomprehensible [MDPV01] Figure 5.4 shows the class diagram of the structure of a Megaco/H.248 environment. Megaco/H.248 is the media gateway control protocol, this is a master-slave, transaction oriented protocol in which Media Gateway Controllers (MGC) control the operation of Media Gateways (MG) [VVDN02] VoIP media gateways are vulnerable to DoS because they accept signaling messages. In this setting a Dos attack would occur at MGC when the attacker sends large amount of UDP packets to the protocols default port 2944 or 2945, which keeps the MGC busy handling illegal messages, and finally blocks the normal service. An attacker can keep sending Service change or Audit capabilities command to a MG and thereby bring down the MG [SVID01]. Therefore, VoIP Gateways will not be able to initiate calls or maintain a voice call during a DoS attack. The audio quality will be affected as well. An alternative to launch DoS attacks is when an attacker redirects media sessions to a media gateway. The attack will overwhelm the voice component and prevent it from processing legitimate requests. Signaling DoS attacks on media gateways con consume all available Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) bandwidth, preventing other outbound and inbound calls and affecting other sites that use TDM, On the other hand, due to the fact that VoIP media session are very sensitive to latency and jitter, DoS on media is a serious problem. VoIP media, which is normally carried with RTP, is vulnerable to any attack that congests the network or slows the ability of an end device (phone or gateway) to process the packets in real time. An attacker with access to the portion of the network where media is present simply needs to inject large numbers of either RTP packets or high QoS packets, which will contend with the legitimate RTP packets [VVS01]. Consequences: The success of this attack implies: DoS can be especially damaging if key voice resources are targeted (e.g; media gateways). Flooding of the firewall can prevent it from properly managing parts for legitimate calls VoIP QoS can be degraded by jitter and delay and may become totally unusable. The Zombies in the targeted network can also be used as DoS launching points from which to attack anther network Possible sources of failure include: Threats and attacks can be defined but are difficult to carry out in practice, mainly due to lack of knowledge and testing opportunities for attackers. 4.2 Call Interception in VoIP: Purpose: The VoIP call interception pattern provides a way of monitoring voive packets of RTCP transmissions. This kind of attack is the equivalent of wiretapping in circuit switch telephone system. Context: Two or more subscribers are participating in a voice call conversation over VoIP channel, In public IP network such as the Internet, anyone can capture the packets meant for another user. In order to achieve confidentiality, enterprises may use encryption and decryption techniques when making or receiving VoIP calls. Since cryptographic algorithms are typically implemented in hardware, they are difficult to implement in VoIP, which is software-base. In VoIP network, transport-protocol based threats rely on a non-encrypted RTP stream [VIS03]. On the other hand, enterprises may route voice traffic over a private network using either point-to-point connections or a carrier-based IP VPN service. Two basic standards are used for VoIP systems: H323 and SIP. We consider here an attack in an H323 environment. The SIP attack can be considered a variant of this pattern or a separate pattern. Problem: A call that traverses in converged network needs to be intercepted. The attack can be carried out talking advantage of the following vulnerabilities. The Real Time Protocol (RTP) is not a complete protocol but rather a framework where vendors are provided implementation freedom according to their specific application profiles [VIS03]. This means that specific implementations may have diverse degrees of security. In RTP, information on the used codec is available in the header of every RTP packet, via the PT header field [VIS03] PC-based IP phones (a.k.a. Softphones) are applications installed on user systems (e.g. desktops) with speakers and microphones that reside in the data segment. It is possible for worms, viruses and other malicious software common on PCs to infect the voice segment in VoIP. In wireless VoIP (i.e. VoIPoW), publicly available software can be used to crack Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) products. As VoIP in a wireless environment operates on a converged (voice, data, and video) network, voice and video packets are subject to the same threats than those associated with data networks. Likewise, all the vulnerabilities that exist in a VoIP wired network apply to VoIPoW technologies plus the new risks introduced by weaknesses in wireless protocols. The tools used for call interception purpose can be downloaded freely on the internet, greatly increasing the potential of this type of attack. VoIP security is in an incipient phase at the moment, there is lack of expertise and security standards. Users might inadvertently expose the system. While there exist some basic countermeasures such as IDS and firewalls, administrators may not configure them appropriately. Unit now VoIP has been developed and deployed focusing on functionality with less thought for security [SAV01]. That means that not very advanced defenses are in place. For example, strong authentication is not common in VoIP. Because of the many nodes in packet network, call interception can be applied in many places. The transfer of voice data over public networks (i.e. the internet), facilitates the possibility of attacks on this technology. It is much easier to hack VoIP network hubs than traditional phone switches. Although hackers cannot intercept voice calls, they can have access to packets traversing the converged network. Anyone can record, duplicate and distribute to unintended parties voice calls over IP. IP Phones have become available for software developers. The increase in features and complexity comes however with a security cost: more application equal more avenues of attack [VST04]. VoIP is vulnerable to call interception attacks which have not previously been a security issue with circuit-switched networks where tapping requires physical access to the system. Therefore tapping is a serious concern in IP telephony when compared with the traditional telephony environment. Solution: VoIP Call interception gives attackers the ability to listen and record private phone conversation by interception both the signaling and the media stream. The attacker is also able to modify the content of the packets being intercepted acting as a man in the middle. In principle this threat affects both the signaling and the data depending on the ability of attacker of intercepting both [VST04]. Due to the fact that voice travels in packets over the data network, hackers can use data-sniffing and other hacking tools to identify, modify, store and play back unprotected voice communications traversing the network, thus violating confidentiality. A packet sniffer is a software application that users a network adapter card in promiscuous mode (a mode in which the network adapter card sends all packets received in the physical network wire to an application for processing) to capture all network packets that are sent across a particular collision domain. This packet sniffer application can reside in a general-purpose computer attached, for example, in a local area network [Fer05]. For example, the tool voice over misconfigured Internet telephones (a.k.a. vomit), takes an IP phone conversation trace captured by the UNIX tool tepdump, and reassembles it into a wave file which makes listening easy [DSCN01, SATT03] using MP3 or alternative audio files. The reassembled files can be co llected later, emailed or otherwise sent on the eavesdropper. Figure 5.5 shows the sequence of the steps necessary to monitor a VoIP conversation. Figure 5.5 Sequence diagram for a call interception With tepdump, hackers can identify the IP and MAC address of the phone to be attacked. By using an Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) spoofing tool, the attacker could impersonate the local gateway and the IP phone on the network, creating a default gateway [DSCN01]. This allows RTP streams to and from the target IP phone to be monitored by the attacker. The communication between the Gateway and Gatekeeper is equally vulnerable to call interception using the same techniques described for terminal devices. The RTP streams can be intercepted between the IP end-stations or between the Gateways and Gatekeeper (IP Trunk) [SATT03]. Likewise, the FragRouter tool would have to be enabled on the attacking machine so the data packets would reach their ultimate destination. If the hacker has access to the local switched segment, he may be able to intercept a call by inserting a phone into the voice segment with a spoofed Media Access Control (MAC) address, and assuming the target phones identity. Consequences The success of this attack implies: It is possible to listen in on a conversation by intercepting the unencrypted media stream between the two terminal devices. Attackers may use telephone systems for divulging crucial information such as Social Security numbers, Credit Card numbers or other confidential information. Inside a company, eavesdropping could allow access to confidential business information. Hackers could capture the packets and decode their voice packet payload between two or more VoIP terminal devices. Due to the fact that voice travels in packets over the data network, hackers can use data-sniffing and other hacking tools to identify, modify, store and play back unprotected voice communications traversing the network, thus violating confidentiality and integrity. A hacker breaking into a VoIP trunk has access to many more calls than he would with traditional telephone tapping. Consequently, he has a much greater opportunity of obtaining useful information from tapping a VoIP data stream than from monitoring traditional phone systems. Call interception attacks result in the attacker being able to use the intercepted data for other malicious intents, such as: call pattern tracking, number harvesting, and conversation reconstruction [VST04]. The interception and modification threat results in the attacker being able to modify the packets for malicious actions, examples are: Call blackholing the attacker intentionally drops essential packets (e.g. INVITE) of the VoIP protocol resulting the call initiation to fail; Call rerouting the attacker redirects the packets on a different path in order to include unauthorized nodes in the path or to exclude authorized ones from it; Conversation alteration the attacker alters the packets in order to modify the conversation between two users; Conversation degrading the attacker intentionally drops a selection of packets or modify the content of them with the objective of degrading the overall quality of the conversation [VST04]. Possible sources of failure include: Call Interception is somewhat limited because it would require physical access to the local network or remote access to a compromised host on the local network. Intercepting voice traffic as it crosses the Internet is more difficult because once the packetized voice hits the carrier; it becomes much harder to single out among other traffic. It is more difficult to intercept calls on VoIP networks than capturing and reading text messages on public networks. 4.3 Theft of Service in VoIP Intent The Theft of Service pattern provides an opportunity for attackers to gain access to the VoIP network by imitating subscribers and/or seizing control of terminal devices and performing free calls. Situation: The VoIP system should have adequate capability (i.e. routing, bandwidth, and QoS) to meet the peak communication load. The system may have a minimum set of perimeter defenses, e.g. a firewall. Some VoIP systems use control protocols (e.g. MGCP and Megaco/H.248) and security mechanisms, in order to manage the Media gateways deployed across the infrastructure as well as to make it difficult for an attacker to overcome system resources. In a converged network both the signaling and media traffic must be monitored. Similarly, secure VoIP implementations use cryptographic algorithms to protect the media packets. Theft of service attack (a.k.a. IP telephony fraud) is intended against service providers. Problem An unauthorized user wants to make expensive phone calls without paying for them. The attack can be carried out taking advantage of the following vulnerabilities: Theft of service attacks may be caused by inadequate security mechanisms in VoIP, the insertion of malicious software that modifies the normal behavior of terminal devices, and the unauthorized connection of devices to the network. It is possible to charge calls to another users account by using stolen user identification details. Phone usage and billing systems can be manipulated by fraudulent telephone users in order to make profit. The benefits of portability and accessibility introduced by IP Telephony have a downside of an increased risk of service theft [SATT03]. When using Hoteling, the primary protection against theft of service in the traditional telephony environment, the physical security of the handset, is no longer enough [SATT03]. Unattended IP telephone. Rogue telephones can be installed. MAC addresses are easy to spoof. Solution: This attack could be accomplished using several techniques. An attacker may just simply want to place calls using an unattended IP phone or assuming the identity of the legitimate user of a terminal device. The attacker uses the identity of the owner (i.e. identity theft) without the owners consent. She then charges the call to the owners account. A more complex method is when the attacker places a rogue IP phone on the network or uses a breached VoIP gateway to make fraudulent calls. In a service volume fraud, the attacker injects in the network more traffic than what declared in the session request in order to avoid paying for the used resources [VST04].Theft of service can also be perpetrated using falsified authentication credentials. A number of IP Telephony vendors authenticate their end points via Ethernet media access control addresses (MACs). MAC addresses are notoriously easy to spoof [SATT03]. An attacker might impersonate as an IP Telephony signaling server and request an end-device to perform authentication before dealing with its call request. Using the endpoints IP Telephony network credentials the malicious party will be able to authenticate to any IP Telephony based server as well as to place free of charge phone calls. Figure 7 shows the sequence of the steps necessary to commit theft of service in VoIP (Figure 1 shows the units involved). First, the attacker uses a brute force attack to find the special prefixes that Internet phone companies use to identify authorized calls to be routed over their networks. The attacker then looks for vulnerable ports and routers in private companies and gets their IP addresses. On finding vulnerable ports, she hacks into the network to get administrator names and passwords. The attacker then reprograms the routers to allow them to handle VoIP calls, and to masquerade the true source of the traffic. The attacker then routes her calls to the targeted network via the routers she has hacked, and then sends the calls from the targeted network to Internet phone service providers. She may also attach the access codes to the calls, so that the Internet phone providers believe they are legitimate calls. Finally, unauthorized calls will go through successfully and will be completed over the Internet phone provider networks. Sequence diagram for theft of service attack Another method of attack is by receiving an application in a spam email, or accidentally downloaded from the Internet. This application can direct the phone to call premium rate numbers by installing itself on a softphone (i.e. applications installed on user systems with speakers and microphones). Finally, the reduction in costs for Moves, Adds, and Changes (MAC) in an IP Telephony environment has led to the addition of daemons/services on many vendors IP Telephones. Some of the more popular services include HTTP, SNMP, and Telnet [SATT03]. Attackers may take advantage of the benefits of portability and accessibility introduced by VoIP to perform theft of service. Hoteling is one of the most popular features of VoIP, it consist of moving all the features, including address book, access abilities and personalized speed dial from one phone to another [SATT03]. When using Hoteling, the physical security of the IP phone is no longer enough. Consequences: The success of this attack implies: In order to make expensive calls to premium rate numbers, rogue devices could be attached to an organizations network without the users knowledge. Weaknesses in wireless security policies could also be exploited by rogue devices. Unauthorized phone calls will seem to originate from subscribers inside the attacked VoIP network. Attackers could also steal minutes from VoIP service providers and resell them on the black market. Attackers will be able to register for unauthorized services taking advantage of the virtual communication paths in IP networks. In IP telephony, premium rate numbers will be dialed automatically. Possible sources of failure include: Threats and attacks can be defined and theorized but are difficult to carry out in practice, mainly due to the lack of knowledge and testing opportunities for attackers. 4.4 Call Hijacking in VoIP Purpose: The Call hijacking attack pattern is intended to direct a participant or participants of a VoIP call to a terminal device other than the intended recipient. The hacker is able to trick a remote user into believing one is talking to his/her intended recipient when in fact one is really talking to the hacker. Situation: Two or more call participants exchanging information (signaling information and the packetized voice) between them. This call related information is exposed to a number of possible attacks when traversing public IP networks such as the Internet. Problem: A Call traversing a converged network needs to be redirected to an unintended recipient. This attack can be carried out taking advantage of the following vulnerabilities: SIP messages have no built-in means to insure integrity. SIP does offer limited built-in security. SIP is a technology still in development; it does not provide security built in capabilities. This protocol does not support integrity of the message contents. Sniffing tools are more effective when using SIP, which is text-based protocol. Registration in SIP is normally performed using UDP, which makes it easier to proof requests. Authentication is often not required and if present, its usually weak [BVIS01]. When authentication in SIP is used, it is not strong. Failed registrations are not always logged. SIP proxies will not normally detect directory scanning and registration hijacking attempts [BVIS01]. Since the data packets do not flow over a dedicated connection for the duration of a session, an adversary could manipulate the routing of packets and cause delay in certain paths forcing the packets to take a path chosen by the adversary. [ITVP01]. The signaling messages are sent in the clear, which allows an attacker to collect, modify and replay them as they wish. Attackers who successfully perform Call Interception attacks can compromise wireless networks with improperly configured access points. Solution: Although VoIP is implemented using various signaling protocols, we consider here an attack in an SIP environment. The H.323 attack can be considered a variant of this pattern or separate pattern. In a SIP environment, a proxy server is used to initiate calls on behalf of endpoints and control call routing. The proxy server also performs security functions such as authentication, authorization and network access control. Figure 5.8 shows the components for a SIP-based network, User Agents (UAs), are combinations of User Agent Client (UAC) and User Agent Servers (UAS). The UA is the phone and the register server receives registrations and requests updates to the location server, which keep track of the UAs. A UAC is responsible for initiating a call by sending a URL-addressed INVITE to the intended recipient. A UAS receives requests and sends back responses. The UAC and UAS are identified by SIP addresses. The proxy server is connected to VoIP gateway (to make possible a call from a regular telephone to an IP phone) and to other proxy servers. The registrar and location server may be integrated in the proxy server. The rest of the VoIP architecture is similar to Figure 5.1 and represented by a UML package. Once the call has been established, the RTP media streams ow between the end stations directly. Call Hijacking in VoIP requires breaking into a converged network and interception packets being sent between two or more subscribers participating in voice call conversation (please refer to Call Interception attack pattern). After the IP address or phone number of either party is discovered, malicious users can user this information to hijack the call. This attack is achieved by impersonating a legitimate UA to a SIP register substituting a legitimate IP address with an attacker IP address. The attacker then manipulates the registration associated with the victims SIP URI [VIS03]. In this way, by manipulating outgoing call requests, the attacker is able to substitute a legitimate IP address (of either party) in the header (e.g. the Form header of a SIP request) of the intercepted packet with her own address. The hijacking attack can be also be done by performing a DoS attack against the users device deregistering the user. Generating a registration race-condition in which the attacker sends repeatedly REGISTER requests in a shorter timeframe (such as ever 15 seconds) in order to override the legitimate users registration request [TAAC01]. The class diagram of Figure 5.9 shows the structure for a VoIP Call Hijacking attack in SIP architecture. The sequence diagram of Figure 5.10 shows the sequence of steps necessary to perform this type of attack. The hijack begins with the attacker sending a specially crafted REGISTER request to the target proxy/register, to unbind all existing registrations. If the server requires authentication, it replies to the REGISTER requests with a challenge. Once all legitimate contacts have been deleted, the attacker sends a second REGISTER message containing new Contact header line with the attackers address [BVIS01]. Registration hijacking can also be performed by intercepting and editing REGISTER requests sent between a valid UA and registrar. This attack is possible, but is less of concern than the attack described above [BVIS01].Likewise; the attacker can spoof a SIP response, indicating to the caller that the called party has moved to a rogue SIP address, and hijack the call. Consequences: The success of this attack implies: This attack causes all the victims calls to be received by the attacker or other unauthorized parties. Call hijacking can result in violation of confidentiality to the legitimate endpoint. By performing call hijack in VoIP, an attacker has complete control (i.e. manipulating, blocking, conferencing, and recording) of the call and has access to all SIP messages. The attackers station can also capture authentication or other call related information. Likewise it can masquerade as a voice mail system opening a channel to the attacker. By hijacking the call, the attacker can also perform a Man-In-The-Middle (MITM) attack, where it transparently sits between the calling and called UAs, able to collect and modify both the signaling and media. Another type of MITM attack involves redirection of an inbound call to a media gateway, generation toll fraud [BVIS01]. This attack can be successful even if the remote SIP proxy server requires authentication of user registration, because the SIP messages are transmitted in the clear and can be captured, modified and replayed. Through call hijacking, the attacker can perform various attacks including theft of service in VoIP or message tampering. It will also enhance the DoS vulnerability which will make the users device useless. When this attack is applied to a VoIP network, the Quality of Service (QoS) may be diminished to a noticeable level [ITVP01]. Possible sources of failure include: Successful attacks require that the fake responses coming from the attacker station contains the right header content to be accepted as legitimate. Some fields are especially hard to estimate or intercept and thus mirror [VIS03]. 4.5 IP Spoofing in VoIP Purpose: The VoIP Spoofing pattern is intended to allow hackers (internal or external), to masquerade a legitimate terminal device. Situation: Two or more subscribers are participating in a voice call conversation over a VoIP cannel that may be intercepted. In public IP networks such as the Internet, anyone can capture the packets meant for another user. Problem: An attacker needs to trick a remote user into believing one is talking to his/her intended recipient when in fact they are really talking to the hacker. The attack can be carried out taking advantage of the following vulnerabilities: VoIP devices such as IP phones, Gatekeepers, gateways and Proxy servers inherit the same vulnerabilities of the operation system or firmware [VS05] on top of which they run. Many SIP implementations still user the Universal Datagram Protocol (UDP) for transporting SIP messages, which is an unreliable form of packet transfer. UDP does not use re-transmission or sequence numbers, so it is easier for an attacker to spoof UDP packets [BVIS01]. Attackers may take advantage of the connectionless nature of the UDP protocol to spoof registration requests. Solution: IP spoofing gives attackers the ability to generate an IP packet with an IP source address other than its own. There are two methods of doing this. The hacker can use either an IP address that is within the range of trusted IP addresses for a network or an authorized external trusted IP address that has access to specified resources on a network. With user identification based in the IP layer and the IP layer easily tampered with, it is easy for unauthorized users to impersonate legitimate ones by marking packets sent over these networks with a borrowed IP address. These abuses of services and benefits (e.g. making international calls) occur at the expense of legitimate users, who are often completely unsuspecting until the bill arrives long after the abuser has disappeared [FA01]. IP spoofing is possible because the routing of VoIP packets is based only on the destination address. Due to the fact that that touting mechanism is not based on source addresses, when the packet is delivered to its destination address, the attacker address is that of source and not of the original sender. An IP Softphone can spoof the functionality and appearance of an IP hardphone to the call processing platform. Using tools such as SMAC (Spoof MAC) witch allows users to change MAC address for almost any Network Interface Cards (NIC) on the Windows 2000 and XP systems, the IP softphone can be configured quite easily to assume the full functionality and rights of any extension given only the MAC address of that extension [SATT03]. Some voice mail systems use Caller ID to authenticate administrative access to individual voice mail accounts. IF the Caller ID of an inbound call matches the number assigned to the telephone associated with the voice mailbox, the system assumes that the call is originating from that phone, and call is routed to the voice mailbox with administrative privileges. Caller ID can be readily spoofed using freely available PBX software and a H.323/VoIP gateway service, and possibly via other methods. Caller ID should not be trusted for authentication. [VMS06] Consequence: The success of this attack implies: Attackers can hide their identity for launching DoS attacks. Call hijacking and theft of service can also be accomplished using IP spoofing. When using this attack pattern, malicious users can bypass authentication and filtering in order to cause information leak, data modification, and arbitrary code execution. Without spoof mitigation filter a hacker might be able to spoof the address of the IP-PBX and UDP flood the entire voice segment [FA01]. Attackers will obtain access to sensitive logging data and routing information form subscribers; even if they are not capable of interception VoIP calls. IP spoofing attacks against VoIPoW networks makes other type of attacks possible. Attackers can establish itself as routing node and perform call interception for example. By using IP spoofing, attackers can take advantage of trust relationships based on the caller IP address. IP spoofing can also be used to gain important VoIP logging information in order to modify a call session. When spoofing weak authenticated voicemail systems, attackers can listen to and deleted messages, modify the greeting, and perform other administrative functions [VMS06]. Possible sources of failure include: The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection oriented. Guaranteed-delivery transport. TCP is more secure than UDP, because it involves a negotiated setup and tear down, sequence numbers, and retransmissions for lost packets [BVIS01]. Successful attacks require that the forged responses coming from the attacker machines contains the right header content to be accepted as legitimate. Some header fields are especially hard to estimate or intercept and thus mirror [VIS03].

The Personality Disorder ( Ocd ) - 1578 Words

How to Help Someone With A Personality Disorder Personality is the characteristics and traits of a person that makes them unique. Disorders, such as Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) or Obsessive Compulsive Disorder(OCD), can alter that person’s personality and behaviors and stun them from being able to mature, communicate and interact with society properly, and can interfere with their daily life routines. There are nine different known personality disorders. (Borderline Emotionally). Many personality disorders are able to be treated though not cured entirely. Some common disorders, such as BPD, can be treated through multiple sessions of psychotherapy, which can consist of group, individual, and even family therapy sessions. The use of medications along with support from family members and friends can help lessen the symptoms of the personality disorder. There is even a possibility of hospitalization that may be able to help certain people suffering from personality disorders. It can be tough dealing with a personality disorder. Say there is a person diagnosed with Borderline Personality Disorder, one of the more commonly known and studied disorders. They would have episodes of extreme happiness and episodes of extreme sadness or anger. There is no real in between for them. They would lack self-confidence and a sense of self-image, which could lead to self mutilation or even suicidal tendencies. BPD is a more tricky personality disorder because many people want toShow MoreRelatedPersonality Disorders ( Ocd )1967 Words   |  8 Pagesdiagnosed with Antisocial Personality Disorders(APD), but it cannot be found in the DSM(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders). The DSM-V defined APD as a pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood. Antisocial personality has appeared in the DSM since its first edition in 1952, although it was initially la belled antisocial reaction under sociopathic personality disturbance. German-AmericanRead MoreNarcissism Personality Disorder ( Ocd )1059 Words   |  5 PagesNarcissism personality disorder according to DSM-V is (and now also in Section II of DSM-5) describe â€Å"a pervasive pattern of grandiosity (in fantasy or behavior), need for admiration, and lack of empathy . . .,† indicated by five or more of the following: (a) a grandiose sense of self-importance; (b) preoccupation with fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance, beauty, or ideal love; (c) beliefs of being special and unique; (d) requirements of excessive admiration; (e) a sense of entitlement;Read MoreAntisocial Personality Disorder ( Ocd ) Essay827 Words   |  4 PagesAntisocial Personality Disorder Katie McGuire University of Groningen Student number: s3229211 Mentor group number: 1636 Mentors: Joke van Dijken and Johanna Hecht Date: 25/10/2016 Antisocial Personality Disorder Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) is a disorder characterized by behaviour that is socially undesirable such as breaking the law, lying, and not feeling any guilt. People who suffer from APD often have certain personality traits such as being charming, manipulative, insincereRead MoreAntisocial Personality Disorder ( Ocd )1845 Words   |  8 Pages ANTISOCIAL PERSONALITY DISORDER Introductory Psychology PSYC 1101 – Fall Semester 2014 Mr. Moser October 23, 2014 Taylor B. Hart â€Æ' Abstract Antisocial Personality Disorder is a very rare disorder. The criteria to be diagnosed with Antisocial Personality Disorder has been changed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders throughout many years. The rareness of this disorder can be considered beneficial in the world because of the way people diagnosed with it become andRead MoreAnti Social Personality Disorder ( Ocd )1327 Words   |  6 Pagespredisposition to having anti-social personality disorder â€Å"In 2013, an estimate of 679, 000 children were abused or neglected† (National Children’s Alliance, 2013). Abuse and/or neglect history in young adults can have strong impact physically and emotionally. Previous researchers have found that abuse and/or neglect in young adults can be one linked to personality disorders. They have found that Anti-social Personality Disorder (APD) can be one of the personality disorders that’s linked to abuse and/orRead MoreUse Of Sociopathy : An Alternative For Adolescent Personality Disorders ( Ocd )1976 Words   |  8 Pagesdiagnosed with Antisocial Personality Disorders(APD), but it cannot be found in the DSM(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders). The DSM-V defined APD as a pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood. Antisocial personality has appeared in the DSM since its first edition in 1952, a lthough it was initially labelled antisocial reaction under sociopathic personality disturbance. German-AmericanRead MoreMommie Dearest : Movie Analysis1325 Words   |  6 PagesThere are two different types of disorders, personality and psychological. Psychological disorders are behavior patterns or mental processes that cause serious personal suffering or interfere with a person’s ability to cope with everyday life. Personality disorders are patterns of inflexible traits that disrupt social life or work and may distress the affected individual (Rathus, 2010). One way to learn how to identify these disorders is through movie analysis. Movies can help the understanding ofRead MoreObsessive Compulsive Disorder And Borderline Personality Disorder850 Words   |  4 PagesAccording to yourdictinory.com, disorders are those defined as a confusion to disturb the normal mental or physical health functions. For example those who have learning disabilities that makes it hard for peo ple to learn and concentrate in a classroom setting without getting frustrated. So today I will focus on two disorders along with the diagnostics, symptoms, and treatments for each. The information for obsessive-compulsive disorder and Borderline personality disorder will come from the Faces ofRead MoreObsessive Compulsion Disorder1045 Words   |  4 Pagescompulsion disorder (OCD) is an anxiety disorder described by irrational thoughts and fears (obsessions) that lead you to do repetitive tasks (compulsions) (Obsessive Compulsion Disorder, 2013). When a person has obsessive-compulsive disorder, they may realize that their obsessions arent accurate, and they may try to overlook them but that only increases their suffering and worry. Eventually, you feel driven to perform compulsive acts to ease your stressful feelings. Obsessive-compulsive disorder is oftenRead MoreTreatment Plan for Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Essay1334 Words   |  6 Pagesobsessive-compulsive disorder ( OCD) is and how leisure education can be used to help these individuals who have been diagnosed with OCD. This essay will discuss the various characteristics that can be noticed with an individual who has been diagnosed with OCD and also introduce different leisure activities that can be used to help these individuals. The overall goal for this essay is to provide strong evidence showing that leisure education can be useful in helping individuals with OCD. OCD is considered

Financial Analysis Of Macy s Inc - 1742 Words

Introduction This report presents the financial analysis of Macy’s Inc. The company’s financial position is gauged using ratio analysis and suggestions on improvements are provided. The ratios will be compared to one of its top competitors Dillard’s. Using 2014 key financial statements such the income statement, balance sheet, cash flow, and key statistics found on yahoo finance. It also analyzes the company’s historical stock prices and will compute the stock average, standard deviation, and beta over a 60 month period and compares it to the market average. It then will transition into reviewing future growth estimates and will use the constant growth model to compute the company’s fundamental value. Also, it will review analyst opinion†¦show more content†¦Bloomingdale’s in Dubai is operated by Al Tayer Group LLC under a license agreement.’ (â€Å"Macy’s, Inc. Macy’s, Inc. Web. 19 Apr. 2016.) Macy’s sa les a variety of merchandises, from men, women, and children clothing and apparel to home furnishings. Rowland Hussey Macy founded the company R.H. MACY CO, on the corner of 14th Street and 6th Avenue in New York City in 1858, as a dry goods store. He adopted the company’s logo as a red star. The red star was a symbol for success in his days of being a sailor. The first year’s sales total were $90,000. Compared to a rough first day sales of a mere $11.60. By 1877, the company had grown to become a fully operation department store. By late1902, the store had exceeded its original storefront and relocated uptown to its current location in Herald Square location on Broadway and 34th Street. In 1942, Macy’s had grown become the worlds largest retailer, occupying more than 1 million square feet of retail space. R.H. MACY CO went public in 1922, while opening new locations in the region and buying out competitors. In 1924, the company employees established the first Christmas parade. The annual parade now is called the Macy’s Thanksgiving Day Parade. Afte r much growth, acquisitions, and a few names changes, the company changed its name to Macy’s in 1995 and

Kimpton Hotels’ Free Essays

Kimpton Hotels’  EarthCare program brings the business’s philosophy of environmental responsibility straight to its properties, starting with its pioneering Eco Floor at the  Hotel Triton  in San Francisco in 1994. Today EarthCare’s efforts include: * Using environmentally friendly cleaning supplies in all rooms. * Printing corporate collateral on  recycled paper  using  soy-based ink. We will write a custom essay sample on Kimpton Hotels’ or any similar topic only for you Order Now * Usring recycled paper for all printing property-wide. * Serving organic, shade grown, and/or fair trade complimentary beverages in the lobby. * Allowing guests the opt out of towel and linen service. Recycling of glass,  bottles, paper, and cardboard through back of house operations. * Auditing and retrofitting back of house lighting to ensure  energy efficient bulbs  are in place. * Using low flow systmes for faucets, toilets, and showers. * Encouraging guests to  recycle  with in-room  recycling bins. * Stocking the honor bar with organic snacks and drinks. * Encouraging guests to donate unused amenity bottles to local charities. * Other practices, such as  recycling  coat hangers, eliminating styrofoam cups, using paperless checkin/out, purchasing organic flowers, and more. Kimpton properties are found in: * Scottsdale, AZ * Vancourver, BC Whistler, BC * Los Angeles, CA * San Diego, CA * San Francisco, CA * San Jose, CA * Aspen, CO * Denver, CO * Chicago, IL * B oston, MA * Cambridge, MA * New York City, NY * Portland, OR * Dallas, TX * Salt Lake City, UT * Alexandria, VA * Arlington, VA * Seattle, WA * Washington, DC * 1. Kimpton HotelsPresented by:GROUP 4Andrew Taylor, KirillCherepkov, Emily York, Alaina Alms,and Susan GrahamApril 23, 2009 * 2. Case QuestionsWhat further steps should Kimpton take to institutionalize its environmental commitments? ~AndyHow would you measure the success of the EarthCare Program, and how should it be reported to stakeholders? KirillWhat progress has Kimpton made in the four phases of its EarthCare Program sinc the case? ~EmilyWhat is the progress for each of the four phases? ~AlainaWhat is your overall assessment of their progress since the case? ~Susan * 3. How Would You Measure The Success Of The Earthcare Program? KirillCherepkov * 4. SustainabilityEnvironmental mgmt. (measuring success)Environmental audits (reporting) * 5. Environmental Mgmt. in PracticeMeasuring SuccessTop mgmt. w/ a commitment to susta inabilityLong-standing commitment†¦Phase 1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 †¦Line mgmt. nvolvementLocal programsEmployee suggestions * 6. Environmental Mgmt. in Practice (cont. )Measuring SuccessCode of environmental conductâ€Å"Our Philosophy† Our philosophy on environmental responsibility is about more than contributing financially; it;apos;s about embracing behavioral change. This kind of change begins at home, is expanded at work, and now extends to who we choose to do business with†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"EarthCare program †¦ was the right thing to do. † – Tom LaTour, Chairman and CEOCross-functional teamsJeff Slye, Business Evolution ConsultantEco-champions, co-leads, and program specialists * 7. Environmental AuditsReportingSustainability report:PepsiCo http://www. pepsico. com/Purpose/Sustainability/Sustainability-Report/Environmental-Sustainability. aspxCAT http://www. cat. com/cda/layout? m=199421;x=7Wal-Mart http://walmartstores. com/Sustainability/7951. aspxFordhttp://www. ford. com/micr osites/sustainability-report-2007-08/defaultCost savings:$250,000 per year in waste disposal†¦New business: â€Å"†¦$500,000 in meetings†¦Ã¢â‚¬  * 8. What Progress Has Kimpton Made In The Four Phases Of Its Earthcare Program Since The Case? Emily York * 9. Phase #1 Designed to make hotel staff comfortable with the concept of greener management. Energy Conservation: lighting retrofitted and audited to ensure energy efficient bulbs are in place Recycling: bottles, cans, paper, ; cardboardCleaning Chemicals: tub ; shower, glass, deodorizers, and disinfectantsPromotion Materials: recycled paper and soy-based inkComplimentary Coffee in Lobby: organically grownHonor Bar: includes organic snacks and beveragesTowel/Linen reuse: sheets and towels are replaced only at guest’s request * 10. Phase #2 Focuses on investments in water and energy conservation and organically-grown products. Water Conservation: implementation and auditing of low flow systems for faucets, toilets, and showers Energy Conservation: install motion sensors in rooms, florescent bulbs in corridors and back-of-houseOrganic Coffees ; Teas: served in rooms, meeting rooms, and lobby * 11. Phase #3 Extensive investment in in-room recycling of products and sale of organic/recycled products. In-room Designer Recycling Bins: guests are encouraged to participate in reducing our environmental impact Recycled Papers: for copying, notepads, toilet paper, and tissuesDonation Programs: instead of being thrown away, unused amenity bottles are donated and used by local charities Recycling: of employee dry-cleaned uniform bags and hangers*Guest can now shop the Kimpton Style catalog for eco-friendlyproducts like organic bedding and recycled glassware. * 12. Phase #4 Investment in building materials, labor, and appliances that are more eco-friendly. Energy Star: appliances, computers, and electronicsPaints: low-VOC paintsHeat/Air Conditioning: energy efficient * 13. NEW Phase #5 * 14. â€Å"Helping the environment because it’s the right thing to do. † – April 13, 2009http://www. changemakers. net/node/21543 * 15. Discuss The Specifics Of The Progress For Each Of The Four Phases. Alaina Alms * 16. OverviewWhat has been implementedProducts and Practices for each of the phasesGoalsAccomplishmentsAwards * 17. What has been implementedEarthCare Products and PracticesAs part of Kimpton EarthCare, every hotel adopts tandard environmentally friendly products and practices with high-impact and benefit to our planet. * 18. Products and Practices (Phase 1)Cleaning Supplies: All rooms cleaned with environmentally friendly cleaning products. Honor bar with organic food and beverage options: Honor bars include organic snacks and beverages. Soy Inks: All corporate collateral is printed on recycled paper using soy based ink . Towel/Linen Reuse: Guests have the opportunity to do their part to reduce energy and detergents required for daily washings. Recycling: Back of house recycling programs addressing glass, bottles, paper, cardboard, etc. * 19. Products and Practices (Phase 2)Organic Beverages: All complimentary lobby coffee is organic, shade grown and/or fair trade. Energy Conservation: Back of house lighting retrofitted and audited to ensure energy efficient bulbs are in place. Water Conservation: Implementation and auditing of low flow systems for faucets, toilets, and showers. * 20. Products and Practices (Phase 3)Recycled Paper: Property wide printing on recycled paper. Best Practices: At any hotel you may find environmental activities such as recycling of coat hangers, elimination of Styrofoam cups, paperless check-ins/outs, organic flowers, and more†¦ In-room designer recycling bins: Guests are encouraged to participate in reducing our environmental impact. Donation programs: Instead of being thrown away, unused amenity bottles are donated and used by local charities. Shop the Kimpton Style catalog: for eco-friendly products like organic bedding and recycled glassware. * 21. GoalsReduce waste in landfills by 15%Reduce energy and water usage by 15%Increase employee retention and morale by 10% * 22. Accomplishments;gt; 962,000 lbs of cardboard recycled~ 50,000 gallons of cleaning chemicals replaced with non-toxic alternatives;gt; 253 trees saved from using recycled paperAccomplished in one year in California alone * 23. AwardsCorporate Citizen of the Year. California EPA Awards. Kimpton has been honored with the 2007 California EPA Green Lodging designation. California Governor;apos;s Award. National GeoTourism Award. ttp://www. kimptonhotels. com/programs/earthcare. aspx Kimpton Hotels’ 7 Eco-friendly Best Practices Put Your Commitment in Writing Kimpton Hotels have one of those â€Å"elevator pitch† mission statements to describe their environmental stance. It states: â€Å"Support a sustainable world by using non-intrusive, high quality, eco-friendly products and services at all Kimpton hotels. † It’s short, sweet, descriptiv e and can easily be said to someone in the few seconds it takes to travel between floors in an elevator. Give Your Eco Program a Name Another way to add more credibility to you environmental efforts is to give your program a name. Kimpton calls their environmentally friendly green hotel practices, the â€Å"Earthcare† program. Like the mission statement, the name very succinctly states the corporate policy and carries with it the feeling that the company’s taking an organized, focused approach to preserving the environment and is already succeeding in its efforts. Provide Your Own Green Business Certification On its Earthcare page, Kimpton lists all of the things they do to be eco-friendly. These actions might not be enough to help them qualify for some green certifications, but anyone can see that they’re serious about their commitment to the environment. This strategy also makes it easier for the media to write about them. Today Show travel editor Peter Greenburg reproduced the Kimpton list of Earthcare Products and Practices verbatim when he mentioned Kimpton Hotels in his article on green lodging. Peter Greenburg’s Article: Eco-Friendly Travel: Hotels and the Green Bandwagon Put Your Results in Real Numbers That People Can Understand Advertising copywriters are taught to write about benefits, not features. In this video on the Sundance Channel, not only can Mike Depatie, the CEO and President of Kimpton Hotels, outline the company’s philosophy and detail all the changes the hotels have made, but he can also articulate the impact it’s having on the environment. Here are just a few of the benefits that are mentioned in the video: â€Å"Hotel Triton recycles 60% of waste. † â€Å"Their low flow toilets, shower heads and faucets save 15 – 30,000 gallons of water each year. â€Å"Their environmentally friendly cleaning products save 50,000 gallons of chemicals being dumped into the environment. † † Their recycling efforts and use of recycled paper products have saved over 253 trees and eliminated 18,000 pounds of waste. † Reward Your Customers for Their Conservation Efforts Kimpton Hotels offer discounts for guests arriving in a hybrid vehicle. The perks vary from saving 10% on the room rate at some properties, to saving as much as 50% off the overnight parking rate at others. Gather Multiple Awards As we stated in our article on obtaining a Green Business Certification for your small or medium-sized business, you should seek out â€Å"certification† from as many organizations as possible. Take one look at the Earthcare page, and you’ll see that Kimpton has done just that by gaining recognition, accreditation, and accolades from a variety of sources in government and in the lodging industry. Here’s a list of the various organizations that have recognized Kimpton Hotels for their eco-friendly hotel practices. Local and State Governments The city of Salt Lake City, Utah. San Francisco Green Business program State of California State of California EPA National Trade Associations Travel Industry and Association of America American Hotel Lodging Association International Trade Associations Hotel Association of Canada State Trade Associations Massachusetts Lodging Association Media National Geographic Traveler Magazine USA Today Travel and Leisure Seattle Magazine MSNBC Sundance Channel, Ecobiz Keep It Fresh How to cite Kimpton Hotels’, Papers

Social Processes free essay sample

This paper discusses violent social behavior, and how it is acquired. This paper analyzes the theory of violence and criminal behavior through the explanation of the theories of containment, learning and social strain. The author uses a case study of a juvenile delinquent based on the various social theories relating to the violent behavior. Sociologists try to understand the human behavior within the society. In the past it was assumed that human behavior was a part of the genetic inheritance but as time passed research showed that the human behavior is more affected by the social and physical environment rather than by genetic structure. To explain the different behaviors exhibited by humans, especially those of violence sociologists presented sociological theories on which basis they could predict, evaluate and analyze human behavior. Consider then the Social Learning Theory: This theory pertains to the hypothesis that a human beings act according to the values taught by the society and environment around them. We will write a custom essay sample on Social Processes or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page As a child they learn through the punishment and reward as parents teach them right from wrong. The peer groups and the school settings etc then reinforce the lesson. Social definitions begin to act as cues signaling the socially acceptable behavior and so behavior is organized around seeking pleasure and avoiding pain.